Preface

The Spartan re-enactors of BlackSword are based on Sparta just before the time of the battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC. The stand of 300 Spartiates against an army of more than 200,000 soldiers is one of the greatest heroic stands in history.

Much of the early history of the Spartans is under dispute. Most of the information available comes from Plutarch, Thucydidies, Xenophon and Herodotus who were biased towards Sparta. Archeological evidence from Sparta is scarce. The information here is a generalization based on several sources.

One thing that is not disputed is that the Spartans were the elite military of Greece for over 300 years from the invasion of Messina in the 8^th century and then the conversion of their society in the mid 7^th century, until their defeat by Thebes in 371 BC. Sparta remained unconquered until the Roman Flaminius invaded in 206 BC. Each individual was dedicated to service to the city and all of the male citizens were full time soldiers. Individually they were not better than other men, but they were nearly unbeatable when fighting as a unit. They perfected the phalanx form of fighting that the Romans later used. The army of Sparta also included perioikoi, free men living in the area around Sparta who gave military service to Sparta.

Introduction

The original Spartans were of Dorian stock. The Dorians were a group of people from northern Greece who emigrated to Lakedaemon (Laconia) in the southern Peloponnesian peninsula in the south of Greece around 1000 BCE. They settled along the Eurotas River in a narrow valley. Their legendary leaders were two brothers, Eurysthenes and Prokles, who claimed to be descendants of Herakles. Their sons, Agis and Eurypon became dual kings. The royal lines of Sparta were named for the sons, the Agiadai line, and the Eurypontidai line.

At that time Greece was made up of city-states and was not a unified country. Warring between the city-states was very common. The war could be over food, land, women, or slaves. They fought in seasons, usually between planting and harvest since most of the soldiers were also farmers or craftsmen.

Needing more land, the Spartans went over the Taygetus Mountains and invaded Messina in 725 BC. Messina was a fertile area by the sea to the west. As was the custom at the time, the conquered people became slaves, called helots. They were divided up to work the lands for the Spartans. The helots revolted in 640 BC and were finally put down with great difficulty.

  Reform of Spartan Society

Due to the continual wars at the time, and the constant threat of revolt of the helots, some changes needed to be made. Lycurgus instituted reforms that reshaped the Spartan way of life. Backed by letters from the oracles he initiated many reforms.

First, he canceled all debts and divided the land into 9000 even parcels for each of the Spartans. The Helots belonged to the state and were assigned to the parcel. Gold and silver coins were outlawed and replaced with iron coins of such a low denomination that it would be too heavy to accumulate wealth. This almost eliminated theft as well as eliminating foreign trade.

Sparta had been ruled by two kings and committee. The reforms set up the Gerousia, made up of 28 elders plus the two kings. Voting was taken by which side yelled the loudest, and not by the number of votes. The day to day governing came from the Ephorate, a group of 5 Ephors, citizens who were elected for 1 year without being able to be re-elected. They would listen to the Gerousia, but were not bound by their decisions.

All citizens would work for the benefit of the state. Parents would raise children until the age of 7. Then they would be put in the apoge, or school. They would be assigned a mentor who would advise them through their school years. At 18 they would be "exiled" for one year to survive on their own. They were encouraged to steal from the Helots, but would be beaten if they were caught. At 19 they were issued a shield with the words "Come home with this in victory, or on it." They then became a Spartiate, or citizen. The shield was the most important thing that they would own: a helmet or greaves were for their personal protection, but the shield protected their brothers as well.

The Spartans, as most Greeks, fought Hoplite style. The carried a large round shield that was made of wood with bronze covering the front. The back was hollowed out and had a shield stand attached to keep the shield upright and ready to use at a moment's notice. They wore a bronze helm to protect their heads, as well as bronze greaves to protect their lower legs. Each soldier went into battle with an 8-foot long spear, and a xiphos -- a short leaf bladed sword for close combat. Javelins were also used. Archers were not very common, as arrows had limited effect in this type of warfare, although the Spartans sometimes hired archers. Calvary was also unusual among the Spartans at this time.

Warriors brought with them on campaign two sticks with their name carved into them, the equivalent of dog tags. They were made of wood so that they had no value in case the dead were looted. One stick was placed in a bowl before the battle, and then picked up after the battle -- the sticks that remained in the bowl after the battle named those that had died. The other stick was tied to the wrist of the Spartan to identify his body incase he was unrecognizable in death. The Spartans had a policy that they would not loot the bodies of a defeated army, nor would they pursue them.

The Spartans were very religious people. The primarily worshiped Apollo, though they prayed to Athena before battle. In several cases they refused to march to battle because it was a religious holiday. They would wait until after the holiday. Due to this policy the Spartans even missed the Battle of Marathon. Sacrificial animals would be taken with them on the march and sacrificed before the battle started. The entrails would be read for an omen. Sometimes they would sacrifice several animals until they received an omen.

Unlike other Greek city-states, Sparta did not have any walls around the city. In part the walls weren’t needed because they had little to steal, in part it was Sparta’s remote location, deep in the mountains and far from the sea. Mostly, it was the reputation of the warriors of Sparta. When one Athenian questioned the Spartan king about the lack of walls, the Spartan king responded "Our shields are our walls." The Athenian asked how many warriors they had and the response was "Enough". Another Spartan King replied to the question about the city without walls, saying that "The bodies of our young men are our walls and their spear points are our borders.

The Spartans were not known to be people of many words. They did not tolerate people that spoke with long flowery speeches, instead they preferred people to be direct and to the point. They also had a pointed sense of humor. When two envoys from the Persian king Darius came to get water and soil samples as a token of submission, they were thrown down the well and told that they could get there samples from the bottom.

The role of the women of Sparta was much more liberated than that of the women of the other "Greek cities of the time. They were expected to manage the family estate while the husband was off on campaign. Lycurgus believed that the women had to be strong and brave to be able to give birth to strong and brave sons. In order to achieve this, Spartan women were allowed to travel about the City in the course of their duties, while the women of other Greek cities were confined to the most private rooms of their own houses. Spartan women were even allowed (and expected) to exercise at the gymnasia. The gymnasia was the "village green" at the center of the city where exercise was practiced. It was called the gymnasia from the word gymnos, which means naked, for the exercise was generally done while naked. When a foreigner commented about the strength of Spartan women as the only women that can handle men, the reply was that it was because only Spartan women give birth to real men.

Persian War The Battle of Marathon

The Persian War was an attempt by the Persian Empire to extend into Europe with Greece and Sicily as the doormat. The Empire originated in present day Iran and had spread to include northern Africa, western Asia, and the Middle East.

The Persians under King Darius captured Ionia in 546 BC. Ionia lies on the east side of the Aegean Sea in what is now western Turkey. Greece is on the west side of the Aegean Sea and Greeks had colonized Ionia. The Persians had drawn their border at the Hellespont, the southern end of the waterway between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean and the border between Asia and Europe. Darius installed tyrants to rule each city-state for him. Athens sent two envoys to Darius to secure a peace. Darius’ response was "Who the hell are they, and where the hell is this place they are they from?" They envoys felt that they could not come back empty handed and gave (or were forced) to give a token of soil and water. In the customs of the times, the soil and water was a token of tribute, and indicated that the giver was subject to the receiver.

One of the tyrants, Aristagoras from Miletus fell out of favor with Darius after giving him bad advice on a campaign. He tried to get Sparta to help in a rebellion, but the Spartans saw through this as a ploy to gain power. He appealed to Athens and they responded by sending 24 ships in 498 BC. After raising some trouble the Athenian navy headed back home. Darius crushed the rebellion in 495, but felt compelled to teach Athens a lesson.

In 490BC Darius launched an attack against Athens. The Persian army sailed to the east coast of Greece. They were met by the Athenian army along with the small army of on the plains near Marathon. The Greeks were greatly outnumbered, but were forced to take the initiative before even greater numbers of Persians arrived. There was also a possibility that the Persian fleet would flank around the position of the Greek army and attack Athens from another direction. The Greeks marched towards the Persian army. The Persian archers let a volley fly. The Greeks broke into a charge and were able to close the distance before the archers could release the next volley. The better armed Greeks were able to defeat the Persians and push them back into the sea. The remaining Persians boarded their boats and sailed around the coast to attack Athens from the south.

A runner had been dispatched to run the 217km to Sparta to ask for help. The Spartans were celebrating a religious festival and would not march immediately. They arrived just after the battle at Marathon was over. They marched with the rest of the Greek army to meet the Persian attack near Athens. The Persian fleet neared land, but seeing the army waiting decided to break off the attack and headed back to Persia.

The Persian fleet ran into a storm off the peninsula at Mount Athos, losing many men and vessels. They had underestimated the unpredictability of the storms in the Aegean Sea in the late summer. The sea would be a Greek ally again in the future.

Thermopylae

The Greeks realized that it was only a matter of time before the Persians came back. Darius died in 494 BCE, six years after Marathon. His son, Xerxes, would continue his work. The empire had already expanded as far south, north, and east as possible. The only way to go was west, and conquer Europe. The plan was formulated to invade Greece and Greek Sicily before raiding the rich Italian peninsula.

Xerxes started a large buildup of his army and supplies. He sent slaves to cut a canal through the peninsula at Mount Athos so that his fleet would not meet the same fate as his father’s ships. He had a bridge built across the Hellespont for the army to march across. This was done by lining up boats and connecting them with a bridge. The first attempt was destroyed in a storm, which cost the engineers their lives. The second attempt was successful.

Among the Persians was Demaratus. He had been a king of Sparta until he was exiled on false charges. He had served as an advisor to Xerxes in military matters in Asia Minor, but Xerxes did not seem to believe his advice when it came to the Greeks. Xerxes questioned Demaratus about the Greeks. Xerxes wondered if the Greeks would fight or surrender, considering their small number when compared to the might of Persia. Demaratus informed the King that the Spartans would give battle even if they had only a thousand men to take the field. Xerxes questioned this, asking if the Spartans were such men that they could expect to take on ten men each. Demaratus replied "One-against-one, they are as good as anyone in the world. But when they fight together, they are the best of all. For though they are free men, they are not entirely free. They accept the Law as their master. And they respect this master more than your subjects respect you. Whatever the Law commands, they do. And this command never changes: It forbids them to flee in battle, whatever the number of their foes. He requires them to stand firm – to conquer or die."

The Greeks were well aware that the Persians were building up a massive army. Many of the Greek city-states allied with the Persians to prevent their own destruction, especially those closest to Persia such as Thessaly and Macedonia. Athens got a bit of luck when they discovered a new vein of silver. Instead of dividing the profits with their citizens, Thermistocles convinced the assembly to invest the money in building up the navy. They were able to build and man two hundred additional triremes with the money.

A combined Greek army marched north to try to head off the Persian army in Thessaly at the Pass of Tempe, but they determined that the plain was too wide and it would be too difficult to defend against the Persian cavalry and superior numbers. They decided to pull their armies back.

Representatives from all of the Greek city-states that had not allied with Persia met at Corinth to determine the strategy. The city-states from Peloponnesia, including Sparta, wanted to form a defensive line at the isthmus near Corinth. The city-states east and north of this line wanted a defensive line further north. Thermistocles argued that if Athens fell then the Persians would use their navy to go around the defensive line. He argued that an army at Thermopylae would bottle up the Persians and eliminate the effectiveness of their numbers. Thermopylae was at a narrow stretch of land only 50 feet wide from the cliffs to the sea. Thermopylae took its name from the hot springs there that tourists would come to visit. The narrow pass would not be wide enough for the massive Persian army to out flank them, and it would prevent the use of the Persian Calvary. The Greek navy would protect the army’s flank from the Persian navy. Thermistocles even went to the step of putting the command of the army and navy under Spartan command if King Leonidas would lead the combined army.

Leonidas went back to Sparta to ask for dispensation for the Spartan army to miss the approaching religious holiday, Carneia. The Ephors refused the dispensation. They did not agree that the line should be so far north, but favored a defensive line at Corinth. Furthermore, they received an oracle from Delphi that either Sparta would mourn the loss of a King, or find their city sacked. Under Spartan Law, King Leonidas was allowed to march with his Royal Bodyguard of 300 soldiers without needing dispensation. He planned to march out with his 300 and meet up with allies. They would block the pass until the holiday was over and the rest of the Spartan army would meet them. He realized that it was essentially a suicide mission. The 300 were chosen from men who already had a male heir so that no family lines would die out. As he started the march his wife, Gorgo, met him and asked what she should do. He told her "To marry good men and bear good children."

The Spartans met up with allies along the way to increase their numbers to 7000 soldiers (estimates vary from 4,000 to 8,000). At Thermopylae there was an ancient wall built by the Phoecians to prevent raids from Thessaly, but it was now fallen apart. Leonidas immediately went about rebuilding the wall. He also sent a contingent of local Greeks to protect a goat path that went around the position. He was concerned that if the Persians found out about the track then they would be able to come around behind them and outflank them.

The Persians saw the wall being rebuilt but were not concerned by such a small force. They were more concerned with regrouping their army. The Persian army was so large (estimates vary, but about 200,000-250,000 is most agreed upon) that it took 5 days for the back to catch up with the front. They were literally drinking rivers dry. A spy was sent to see the defenses of the Greeks. The spy could not see past the wall, but was surprised to see the Spartans in front of the wall, combing their hair and doing gymnastics.

An envoy went to the Spartans to warn them to surrender. They explained that there were so many Persian archers that when the fired their arrows blotted out the sun. Leonidas responded "How pleasant then, if we’re going to fight them in the shade." Xerxes waited for five days expecting that the small Greek army would turn in flight as they saw the size of the Persian army opposing them. But the Greeks did not flee.

The first day of battle was mid August 480 BC. It started with the Medes attacking the Greeks in the Pass. The Greeks were able to defeat the Medes either by weapon, or by pushing them off the cliff into the sea. When there seemed to be a stalemate the Spartans would start to run back as if fleeing in fear. The enemy would run after them only to find the Spartans wheeling around and slaughtering more. At the back of the Persian line the commanders were whipping their men to storm forward. The Mede line grew thin and Xerxes sent in a second army, the Cissians, who did not fare any better than the Medes. Three times Xerxes is said to have jumped to his feet for concern over his army. As the first day ended the Greeks were still in the pass and many Persians were dead.

On the second day Xerxes sent another envoy to the Spartans. He told them that Xerxes had great respect for their courage and ability. If they put down their weapons and march away then Xerxes will let them live, and would place them at the head of the Persian army, as it’s first unit. When the envoy asked what answer he should give Xerxes Leonidas told him "Molon labe"-- come and take them. Xerxes proceeded to send in the 10,000 Immortals, his best troops commanded by his brother, Hydarnes. Like the Spartans, they were professional disciplined soldiers. But they did not have the armor and weapons to match the Greeks. Again, the results were the same, at the end of the day the Greeks still held the pass, but Xerxes had lost a brother and many of the Immortals. Now the whole Persian army was demoralized to see the crack Immortals defeated.

A traitor, Ephialtes, told Xerxes about the goat path. Xerxes had the traitor lead the Immortals around the path. He expected that the Immortals would be in position behind the army by noon the next day. Leonidas found out that the track was discovered. He dispatched most of the Greek troops to go back and wait for the next battle. The Thebians refused to leave and were given the position to protect the goat path. The Spartans would not withdraw. By this time many of the 300 Spartans were already injured or dead. Leonidas sent several back as messengers to save their lives. A couple of the older ones sensed what Leonidas was doing and refused to go, saying that they were a soldier and not a messenger. Two of the Spartans had lost their vision due to infection. One insisted on fighting anyway and was led blind into the battle. The other was led back to Sparta and soon regained his vision, but was treated by some as a coward. He proved his valor in the battle of Plataea, but was considered too reckless at that battle. Spartans believed that a man’s valor should keep him solid in the line, neither allowing him to run back as a coward, nor leave the line forward in recklessness. Either action would leave a hole in the line and endanger the other Spartans.

On the third day the remaining Spartans attacked with the aim to do as much damage as they could. Leonidas was killed and there was a fight to retrieve his body. The Spartans finally retrieved his body and retreated to a small hillock nearby. The Immortals found the Thebians unprepared on the path and quickly killed them. They came through the gate to surround the Spartans. Xerxes did not wish to risk further casualties and ordered his archers forward. Volleys of arrows finally killed the Spartans.

After the battle the body of Leonidas was identified. He was decapitated and his head put on a stake. The bodies of the Persian dead were quickly buried to hide the fact that so many were killed by such a small group. In all, about 1,000 - 2,000 Greeks died, while the Persians lost more than 20,000.

Artemisia

While the armies were battling at Thermopylae, the two navies were playing a game of cat and mouse. The Persian navy outnumbered the Greeks about 1300 ships to 270. But the Greeks found an ally in the Aegean storms. The Greek fleet was hidden in the channel between the island of Euboea and the mainland. But a storm came up and badly damaged the Persian fleet. The main fleet sought shelter in the Gulf of Pagasae to make repairs. While anchored, the Greek fleet attacked them and caused significant damage, but the Persians still held a considerable advantage.

The Persians sent part of the fleet to head south around Euboea and come up the channel behind the Greek fleet. A second storm came up and caught the Persians in the open sea and demolished them. The survivors limped back to join up with the main fleet.

At the same time the Spartans were being killed at Thermopylae, the Greek navy was engaged in a naval battle at Artemisia, at the northern end of Euboea. The Greek navy had an advantage in the narrow channel and fought well. The Persian navy finally disengaged from the battle. The Greek navy did considerably more damage to the Persian navy but underestimated how much damage was done. They also received a lot of damage. By the end of the day news had come in that Thermopylae had fallen and that the Persian army was on its way to Athens. The Greek fleet headed for home.

Salamis

With the Greek fleet gone and the pass at Thermopylae cleared, the Persians were able to march onto their objective: Athens. They arrived at Athens and found the city almost deserted. The Greek navy had evacuated the people to the island of Salamis. They also destroyed the fields to deny food to the Persian army. An oracle from Delphi declared that "the wooden wall only would not fail." Thermistocles took the oracle to mean the Greek navy would win. Some people took the oracle to mean the wooden walls at the Acropolis. These people put up a valiant effort put did not last long. The Persians routed them and then set fire to the city and destroyed the all of the temples.

The Persians knew that the Greeks were still divided over how to defend. The Pelopennesians still wanted to hold at the Corinthian line at the isthmus. Athens threatened to use their navy to relocate Athens to Italy. A spy was sent to convince the Persians that the Greeks were divided and the fleet would try to escape. The Egyptian fleet was sent to block the most likely exit. Xerxes was sitting on a marble throne overlooking the channel. A group of Greek ships feinted that they were heading around to escape. The Persian fleet pursued and soon found that much of the Greek fleet had been ready and waiting. The narrow channel favored the Greek navy and they were able to inflict heavy damage to the Persian fleet. The heavily damaged and demoralized Persian fleet withdrew. The Greeks were unaware of the condition of the Persian navy and did not pursue to destroy them.

Plataea

Xerxes was concerned that the Greeks would attack the bridge over the Hellespont. He was also concerned with the Ionian Greeks revolting and decided to head back to Persia. He left his army to winter in Greece under the command of Mardonius. They quartered in Thessaly to wait for the spring for the next attack. The people of Athens moved back and started to rebuild the city before winter set in.

In the spring the people of Athens were again evacuated to Salamis and Mardonius sacked Athens again. The Spartans, lead by Pausanias, marched out and joined up with the Athenian army. They meet the Persian army outside of Plataea. Both commanders received omens that the attacking army would lose the battle. They set about positioning and trying to draw the other army out. The Greek army had the advantage of being re-supplied while the Persians were running out of food. The Persians sent their cavalry to attack the supply lines and to block up the well to cut off the water supply. Both sides were short on food and reluctant to start the attack. Then Pausanias realized that the Greeks only had supplies for one day left. He staged a withdrawal and let the Persians see him. The Persians thought that the Greeks were retreating and attacked. The Greeks quickly turned around and met the Persians.

Decline

The Spartans warred with several of the Greek city-states that had aided the Persians. After the war Athens sent her navy to Ionia to help free the Ionian Greeks from Persian rule. They gained independence over several decades, gaining wealth in war booty.

Sparta was rocked by a severe earthquake in 462 BC, with many dead. The helots rebelled and the fewer Spartans had difficulty squashing the rebellion. They asked Athens for help. After much debate Athens decided to aid Sparta. But Sparta feared that the democratic Athens would only encourage the rebellion and changed their mind. Athens would not forget this insult.

Athens continued to get stronger through the navy’s efforts in Ionia. They continued to get more arrogant and aggressive. Athens offered the city-states a choice: either alliance with Athens, or to be conquered by Athens. To stand against Athens meant to stand with the other strong Greek city-state, Sparta. By 431 BC Sparta and Athens were at war. The Peloponnesian Wars lasted from 431-404 BC with Sparta the eventual winner.

The war booty from the war increased the corruption within Sparta. People started to covet wealth and lost their discipline. Worse, with a declining birth rate their numbers were decreasing. They only allowed children of a Spartiate to become a citizen. They had about 9000 Spartiates when they reformed in 640 BC. By 371 they only had 1000. In 371 Sparta met Thebes at the Battle of Leucra. They lost not only the war, but Messena was freed as well. Many Spartiates had turned and fled, but Sparta did not have enough warriors left so the ephors did not impose the death penalty on them. Sparta’s dominance of the battlefield had ended.

Macedonia became the next major power. Under Alexander the Great they had displaced the Persians, but they never invaded Sparta. It was not until the Romans in 206 BC that Sparta was invaded.

Conclusion

Sparta was acknowledged as the greatest army from the time of their reforms in 640 BC until their defeat in 371 BC. They were the first Greeks to have a professional army and had a strict code of laws. They were brave men that would never turn their back to the enemy, no matter how large the enemy.

Appendix A: Oracles

Text of the Oracle to Sparta:

Text of the Oracle to Athens:

Bibliography:

Bradford, Ernle, Thermopylae, The Battle for the West, Da Capo Press, New York1993

Forrest, W.G., A History of Sparta, 950-192 B.C., W W Norton & Company, New York 1968

Grant, Michael, The Rise of the Greeks, Collier Books, New York, 1987

Green, Peter; The Greco-Persian Wars, University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1996

Hanson, Victor Davis, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks, and Their Invention of Western Military Culture, Cassell, London, 1999

Talbert, Richard J.A., Plutarch on Sparta, Penguin Books, London, 1988

Additional Reading:

Connolly, Peter, Greece and Rome at War, Stackpole Books, Pennsylvania, 1998

Pressfield, Steven, Gates of Fire, An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae, Bantam Books, New York, 1998

Warry, John, Warfare in the Classical World, Salamander Books, Ltd., London, 1980

Recommended Viewing:

The 300 Spartans, Twentieth Century Fox, (ci. 1960) starring Richard Egan, directed by Rudolph Mate, written by George St. George.